Abandoned Friendship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Abandoned Friendship - Essay Example I told him to be strong and remain contented with what little you have. In essence I gave him the shoulder to sob upon. Then he told me the unfortunate mission behind our going to the mall. He told me we were there to steal a few things which were important for him at that stage of his life. I was shocked to hear that and could not believe how I could be a part of such an activity. I told him this was amazing and I could have never thought of doing anything like that. He told me to help him otherwise he would stop calling me as a friend. My morals did not allow me to do such a thing. He forced me by hand to go to the mall and help him steal some stuff for him. I shrugged off completely and quickly. I made my way to my place without even looking backwards. That was the day this friendship came to an end. I was utterly shocked by his aggressiveness and I cannot believe, to this day, how I could have befriended such a human

Human Resource Management International Pay Systems Essay

Human Resource Management International Pay Systems - Essay Example Conversely, there is evidence that paying workers bonuses based on organizational performance can markedly increase their effort and performance (Bateman and Snell 2004). Pay can thus be a powerful motivator in encouraging many workers to higher performance and greater growth. Nevertheless, effective pay systems--satisfactory for the worker as well as productive for the employer--are more the exception than the rule. External wage comparability is regarded as a means of achieving a degree of equity vis--vis other employees outside the employing organization. The assumption is that wages in the organization should be comparable to those outside it. The focus is on the going rates for comparable work with other employers. If Robert Lord works in Japan, his pay would differ from those of the same age. There are first the components of what is paid out in respect of the work done in any one pay period. There is commonly a basic time-rate, but this may account for only a minor part of total earnings, for these may also contain forms of payment by results or bonus on performance; payment for overtime; premiums for shift, night, or weekend work; other allowances for work in special conditions; allowances for tools, clothing, or travelling time; and allowances for seniority or age (Schuler, 1998). Robert Lord's pay would involve housing, healthcare, transportation and premiums. Also, the company will have to spend additional resources on language training and his family. There remain amenities that are made available to employees generally, but are not provided in specified amounts to any one employee as part of his agreed and enforceable terms of employment. These amenities include subsidized canteens and recreational and educational facilities; medical services; contributory pension or life insurance schemes in which the participation of the employee is voluntary; and sale of the firm's own product to employees at concessionary rates. This different is equitable because the company will have to create favorable and comfortable conditions for R. Lord and his family abroad. Allowance must be made for the boundaries between the groups of occupations having been drawn differently in the various countries, but this will hardly account for differences as great as we find when we run our eyes along the bottom row and the top. But pay differentials are not the sole or very possibly even the main means by which the required allocation is sought in practice. There are also administrative incentives and pressures, which in Poland have been described as 'the long-standing policy of planned recruitment, the training of cadres and the planned employment of persons graduating from higher and seco ndary schools, housing policy, and social policy (Bateman and Snell 2004). In several years spent in Japan, Robert Lord would lose his connections and relations in his home country. The company would have to support him and help to adapt to new environment. In 3-5 years, the company's structure and design, climate and resources would change significantly, so the 'old' workplace would be alien to R. Lord. The company would have to support Lord and his family to relocate back to the USA (Schuler, 1998). Pay for

Cable Modem Cloning Hacking Communication Computer Science Essay

Cable Modem Cloning Hacking Communication Computer Science Essay Cable modem is a communication device. This device allows us to connect our PC or laptop to cable Television line and receive data from operator at speed of 1.5 Mpbs or more. Data rate is much more then telephone modems (28.8 or 56 kbps) and 128 kbps given by ISDN (integrated services Digital Network). It is almost equal to Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) telephone service. Cable modem can is combined with set top box. With this combination channels could be watched on TV and internet could be accessed. In most cased cable modem are given by operator. They are not purchased by customers. Cable modem has two connectors. One connecter is connected to cable wall outlet. Other connected to personal computer or laptop. In some cased second connector is connected to set top box for TV channels. Cable modems do conversation between analog signals and digital signals. In other words it performs the task of modulations and demodulation. Although it do modulation and demodulation but it is a very complex device then telephone modem. Cable modem can be individual external device or it can be integrated with a personal computer of set top box. Cable modem is connected to a laptop or personal computer with a standard 10BASE-T Ethernet card. Cable modems are connected to cable operator with a coaxial cable line. Through this coaxial cable cable modem communicates to Cable Modem Termination System located at cable operator office. Cable modems can send or receive signals to Cable Modem Termination System. But cable modem cannot send or receive signal to other cable modems on line. Internet service bandwidth over cable TV line can be 27 Mpbs or more for downstream and 2.5 Mpbs or more on reverse direction. But main factor in speed is cables from operator office to customers homes and actual speed that operator has. If operator is only connected to internet at speed of 1.5 Mpbs in this case data rate at customer end would be near 1.5 Mpbs. Main cable TV providers are using cable modems to bring internet at customer home. Cable modems are used to provide internet service to individuals and business customers. Fast internet connection can be provided by cables modems as well cable modem is a continuous connection. How cable modems work News, entertainment and educational programs are brought by television in millions of homes. Many peoples watch TV through cable TV in short known as CATV. Cable TV operator provides many channels and in very good picture quality. If customer wants cable TV operator can also provide access to internet with high speed. Cable modems are able to give competition to asymmetrical digital subscriber lines (ADSL).it is very interesting to how these both competitors works. In next topic I will try to explain how many TV channels and web sites flow on single coaxial cable. 1.1.1 More Space Coaxial cable used by cable operators is able to carry hundreds of megahertz of signals and each channel that travels on coaxial cable is given 6 megahertz of total electrical space or bandwidth.it means coaxial cable can carry many more channels then we can or wants to watch. Cable TV operator sends signals of various channels each channel gets six MHz slice of coaxial cables available total bandwidth. There could be two types of distribution of cable network. In first one coaxial cable is installed from operators office till customer home. In second type fiber-optic cable is installed from operators office till different areas then from these different locations coaxial cable is installed till customer home. 1.1.2 Streams If a company provides facility of internet then internet service can also use same coaxial cable. This work is done by Cable Modem by putting downstream data (data that is sent from internet to customer) on a six MHz channel. So internet data is just like a TV channel on cable. Same amount of total cable bandwidth is taken by internet downstream data as by a single TV channel. Internet service is a combination of downstream and upstream (data that is sent to internet from customer) .it means upstream also need bandwidth of cable. It takes only 2 MHz slice of space from total available space because it is assumed that customers download more data as they upload. To put these two types of streams (downstream and upstream) cable operator needs only two devices. One device at customer end that is called Cable Modem and other one at operator end called Cable Modem termination system. Computer networking and internet access management takes place in between these two devices. 1.1.3 inside the cable modem As mentioned earlier Cable modem can be external or internal to computer. Some operators provide Cable Modems those are integrated with set top box. Cable Modems can be different from their outer look but all of them have same components inside. Components are given below 1. Demodulator 2. Media Access Control Device 3. Microprocessor 4. Modulator 5. Tuner 1.1.3.1 Tuner The tuner is connected to cable outlet. In some cases tuner is connected to a splitter. Splitter separates channels used for data from channels used for cable TV channels. Tuner collects data from internet channel. Data comes in form of digital modulated signal. Tuner receives this data and passes this data to demodulator. In some Cable Modems tuner contain one other component known as diplexer.it allows tuner to divide frequencies into two sets. First set is used for downstream traffic ad second one is used for upstream traffic. Range of frequencies used for upstream is between 5 to 42 MHz. Range used for downstream frequencies is between 42 to 850 MHz. In some other cases Cable Modem tuner is only used for downstream data and for upstream traffic dial up telephone modem is used. In any case tuner passes data to demodulator. 1.1.3.2 Demodulator Typically Demodulator performs four functions. First function is to convert radio frequency signal in to simple signal that can be processed by analog to digital converter. Radio frequency signal contains information in it by varying amplitude and phase of wave. Second function is performed by analog to digital converter. It takes signal from quadrature amplitude modulation demodulator in turns in series of 1s and 0s. These 1s and 0s are in digital form. Third function is performed by error correction module. It receives information from analog to digital converter and checks this information against a already known standard for possible errors. Main function of this module is to find problems in transmission and to fix them. At this stage data is in groups and these groups are called frames. Frames can be MPEG format. So MPEG synchronizer does its duty to make sure that frames are in order and in line as they were transmitted. 1.1.3.3 Modulator Modulator do reverse job as done by demodulator. It converts digital data into radio frequency signals. So that they can be transmitted on cable. Nature of traffic that flow between user and internet is irregular. Typically this component has they parts 1. Digital to analog converter 2. Quadrature amplitude modulator 3. Error correction information inserter 1.1.3.4 MAC Cable modem has two portions upstream and downstream.MAC is lactated between these two portions. It works as interface between hardware and software portions of different network protocols. Every network device has MAC. Cable modem MAC performs much more complex task then normal MACs. Because it performs much more complex tasks it work load is given to CPU of Cable Modem or to CPU of user personal computer or laptop. 1.1.3.5 Microprocessor Job of Microprocessor depends on for what cable modem is designed. Cable modem can be designed only to provide internet access or it can be designed to be a part of large computer system. If Cable modem is used only for internet access then Microprocessor of Cable mode does most of function of MAC. In case Cable modem is used to be part of large computer system Microprocessor of computer performs most function of MAC. 1.2 Cable Modem Termination System At CMTS end traffic comes from different users in groups. Function of CMTS is take all traffic on a single channel and route this all traffic to internet service provider for connection to internet. on CMTS end service provider could have set up different servers for performing following functions 1. Account and Log management 2. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol 3. Administration of IP Addresses of users 4. Servers for Data over Cable Service Interface Specifications Downstream data reaches to connected users. It is same like in a Ethernet network. Individual connection has to think that it is for him or not. It is totally different in case of upstream data. Data send from one user to internet is not seen by other users on network. As we know there is not so much bandwidth for upstream. Total available bandwidth is divided into time slices. Time slices are in milliseconds. Time slices are given to different user to send data to internet. Time slices works very well for send short commands, queries and address those are send from users to internet. Typically CMTS allow 1,000 users to connect to internet on a single six MHz channel. Normally single channel have capacity of 30 to 40 megabits per second. So it clear that Cable modem is able to give speed to customers which is much more then dial up modems. Single channel concept could also lead to some issues those customers can face. 2. History of Cable Modems At stating of year 1990 world started to know about stuff that could be possible with digital communication. At that time internet was known just as a tool. Engineers were trying to discover a method to shuttle digital signals between two computers. Same stuff is available for us today in form of internet, email and much more. Technology was invented but not for sending receiving email or surfing web instead it was invented to transmit television channel signals. Channels like ORF, ATV, Plus 4. These channels were transmitted on high capacity wires. At user end a TV box was used to handle these channels and deliver to TV. It was starting of cable TV. To get more TV channels so much efforts are done in last many years. Physical network of coaxial cable and fiber optic cable are installed in many kilometers. These physical networks are installed either underground or some feets over ground using wooden or iron poles. And of course these networks have worked very well to full fill their purpose. Cable TV was born in U.S. but it has rapidly migrated to other continents. Now a day cable TV networks are pumping more than hundred TV channels to homes. One of leading cable operator in Vienna is delivering 132 TV programs including 23 HD programs.[upc.at] Later on inventors wanted to use cable TV network for other purposes. That was time when computer network started to stand on its feet. Means computer networks were started to build in organizations and in educational institutions. Some organization had proved that two or more computer connected to each other can do amazing things. Data or information that was only in individuals computer can be shared between others also can be enhanced by other users. Books were made free from library and published so that all can see. To make it possible that two computers can talk to each other so much was done by inventors. Communication protocols were developed. Languages to develop protocol were invented. Standards of communication were developed. Names were given to standards such as Novell and Ethernet. This all was rising of local area network. At this time engineers and investors started to think about increase boundaries of this information communication network. They wanted to share that was going on in computer of an organization at a wider geographical area. They were thinking to share information of a computer with another computer located at other end of same city. They wanted to transform a local area network in metropolitan area network. All these idea needed transmission medium installed within a city.so that information or data can be send or received on wide spread transmission medium. One solution was to transmit information on copper wires of telephone networks. But copper wires used in telephone network were not able to provide speed that was provided by LANs. Fast speed transmission was provided by advance version of telephone system called TI ,T3 or ISDN. But these solutions of high speed information transmission were very expensive. Luckily same types of cables used for local area networks named coaxial cables were already been installed in all over the city by cable operators to provide TV channels to customers. With some more engineering this cable can be used as very power full media for information transmission. A electronic device was demanded by many organizations and educational institutes. Private and government organizations, schools, hospitals, were looking for a way to send and receive text file, images, across town. Some of them rented expensive lease lines from telephone companies and some of them created their own pipes to transfer data or information across town. But peoples were not aware that there was a medium that was able to data with high speed as well it capable to transfer data on very high speed. This medium was not far away it was just outside in street. Cable TV operators had built a network across city. It was supposed that it was only for transmission of TV channels. But it was very much suited for information as well. It took many years to discover that cable TV network can be used for transfer data across city. LANcity discovered technology that became mile stone for so called Cable Modem. In other words It was just a box that was attached to cable television that was able to transfer coaxial cable a medium to transfer TV channels to medium to transfer data. As many people wished about its speed it was outstanding. It was a big coincidence that almost on same time an another force that attracted attention of peoples was introduced. Its name was internet. Typically cable modem technology was developed so that peoples can share files between offices those were located across city. Combination of internet and cable modem technology connected households with high speed. As it happens to all most all technologies same was with cable modems that it took many years to come in shape that is available for us today. Modems those were made in its early days were big metal boxes and were very heavy to pick up. In early years size of cable modem was almost same as rack of our cupboard. Main idea was they were not made for homes or residential use. They were made for schools, offices and for educational institutions. Not at all for homes. In those days internet was just a linking of government offices and educational institutions. Speed of internet was very slow over dialup phone lines. Computer monitors were also black and white. Operating system of systems was also DOS. It was not windows. There was no world wide web available. Internet was a toy for peoples who were interested in technology or of peoples who were interested to explore new technology. Internet has nothing for everyone. Those days were starting days of internet. 2.1 Development of Cables Nothing would be wrong to say that in those days personal computer were babies. But cable television networks were in their 30s. There was more than one cable operator in same area. Most of cable operators were offering more than 50 channels. Some of cable operators were providing service with basic TV channels on the other hand some were providing TV channels with basic channels as well premium TV channels. Architecture of cable network was totally different as it is today. In these days fiber optics is being used and it has increased speed of transmission lines. Noise that was introduced by amplifiers has reduced. Combination of fiber optics and coaxial cable are doing a under full job. But at starting some peoples believed this combination will never work. With time there are many changes have taken place in technology but still one technology is still same. Pictures of TV channels are taken from air as they are broadcast from satellites. At operator end TV channels are captured from air then they are passed through a so called mixer it place them on a single cable on different frequency bands. Now they are ready to travel on coaxial cable. But after traveling some miles they should be amplified. But here is a problem amplifiers also amplify or boost noise as well. This noise introduced by amplifiers make the picture worse. In 1980 cable networks were like branches of tree. It means from main office of cable operator thick cables were going to all four directions. After a particular distance in each direct less thick cable were used till different branches of cable operator. Thin cables were used till customer home from branch office. This was architecture of cable TV networks. It was perfect to transmit TV channels on it. There were many reasons that this network was not suitable for data communication. In a sense it was one way network. As we mentioned there where many reasons one of them was TV signals were sent only in one direct means from cable operator office to customer homes. To send signal in other direction means from customer to home cable TV operator was not possible. This network could work with data transmission if there would a method that customer or users can also send data to operator office and from operator office to destination of data it could in same city or in same country or could in other country for example world wide web. Till 1980 most of cable operator had not started to make path for customer to send data toward operator office. It was called upstream. Downstream was already possible as channels were sending from operator office to customer homes. Operator were not thinking about it one reason behind was there was not enough demand of it. So without any demand operators were not ready to invest their money in this technology to make path from customer home toward operator office. But it has not affected developers in any way. They continued their inventions in this technology that could make coaxial cable more useable. It was their main interest to make this cable TV network useable for information transmission. Information can travel in both directions not only in one direction. There was a requirement of an electronic device that could combination all stuff of data communication with cables used for TV channels. This electronic device should combine whole architecture of cable network with data c ommunications. So lot of efforts was required to transform cable TV network in to data network. Cable modems those were invented in 1980. Typically were not addressed a Cable Modems. They were so called radio frequency modems. They were not made for home users. They were used only by engineers. They were cable able to perform of modulation and demodulation. Information transmitted by them was 1s and 0s. It was not video means were not TV channels. Information was transmitted in coaxial cable within same boundaries of frequencies. Cable modems those were invented in their early days were used for different purposes. As cable networks owned by cable operators. Only some of cable operator agreed to negotiate within a city to link different buildings. These building can be educational institutions, police stations. These building can send or receive messages to each other by using existing cable network. At that time cable modems were only capable to deliver a speed of 19.2 kbps. But it was still faster than speed given by telephone modems that was around 1200 bps. Interesting thing is after 30 years we can enjoy speed of Mpbs. Cable Modems made in starting days were not so complex as modems those we have now a day. They were very less sophisticated as compared to todays modems. Let us suppose there are two computers in two different buildings attached to each other with cable modems over cable network coaxial cable. A message is sent from first computer. Computer handovers message to modem. Modem hand over this message to destination computer on downstream frequency without any processing. Basically it is broadcasted to all computers over network. Destination computer gets message through cable modem. As well all other computers on network get the message. But they cannot see messages because address of computer does not correlate with messages destination address. Transmission was based on a simple logic. One computer wants to send message to other computer so called Mr. ABC it will send message to all assuming that all are Mr. ABC but only Mr. ABC will receive message because other computers are not Mr. ABC. Till this time cable TV operators started to recognize capabilities of their wide spread coaxial cable network. They started to use cable modem for their own communications. Some of main branch offices were not near to telephone lines. Cable operators had covered remote areas as well mountains. But telephone lines were not available on these places. So cable operators thought they will use their own cables for communication on these remote areas rather than paying to telephone companies for installing telephones line in those remote areas. They have one choice to use cable modem on both end of their cable network. It was cable modem that allowed to cable engineers to set up internet PBX using cable network. Till now a day in some places those modems are used for telephone service. This was the time when data was available with phone and TV channels were already available. After some time developers of cable modem discovered a modem that was able to provide speed of 1.544 Mpbs speed over cable network. They took advantage of it started service of leased line known as T1 for businesses. T1 lines needed bandwidth on cable as equal to one TV channel. Luckily some of cable operator have free channel available. Those operators do not have vacant channels thought to replace some of channels so that give service of private data network to their customers. Research done on history of cable modem shows that it took 15 years and then cable modem became main stream. Main three problems were faced in long path of development of cable modems. First problem was transmission of traffic in both directions. It was possible with cable network to transmit information from operator office to customer homes but transmission of information from customers toward operator office was not possible. Till late 1990 cable operstor were capable to transmit information in both directions. Second problem was with business model. As already mentioned data transmission was made possible by cable modems but it was only use full for organizations or educational institutions like universities or schools. It was not available for home users. At that time it only looked as a business have only cost but no profit. Third problem was modem itself. In most cased it was built by different companies according to their requirement for single application. It was property of supplier. Modems from different suppliers were not able to communication with each other means no interoperable. In simple words it means cable companies were investing in such a technology that have no standard and it can be overcome anytime or other technology. Answer of these questions was given by DOCSIS. DOCSIS stands for Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification. It defined that cable modems are for cable industry. They are not for researchers or developers. DOCSIS helped for development of cable modems in direction of economy and volume. 2.1.1 DOCSIS Till mid of 1990, three problems those occurred for acceptance of cable modem were being solved. Upstream path from customer homes to operator office were being added to coaxial cable network. News from Cambridge and Castro valley encouraged cable operators to know more about cable modem technology.it also helped them to explore business model. Use of cable modem in telecommunications business was also favorable for cable modem development. Internet was rising day by day. Cable TV and telephone companies had tuff competitions. Companies were trying to get each other customers. Companies were able to provide TV channel service as well telephone service. At this time there was a new business for these companies it was internet service for customers at high speed. But still there was one barrier for companies. It was device interoperability. There was a lack of standard in modem industry. It was not possible to get interoperability without standards. Cable modem market could not be emerged without standards. Cable modem developers had a feeling of fear without standards to manufacture a big volume of cable modems. Because of production of less quantity price was high and it directly affected customers. It was well understandable and as well expected that electronic devices should work no matter of their location. In other words if we buy a modem from Vienna it should also work in Graz without any trouble. Because lack of interoperability if a modem purchased from Vienna and then customer moves to some other city where cable service is provided by another operator and this modem will not work there. I would like to give a sweet example here may be you have experienced of different power outlet in different countries. It is obvious no retailer would like to sell such products those give trouble to face angry customers. Interoperability was main issue at that time and it depended on technologies those developers had chosen those days. Some manufactures were selling asymmetrical modems. It means information moved faster from operator office toward customer home as it moved from customer home to operator office. Reason behind was a click to get a page from web needed less bandwidth as required by webpage itself. Some other manufactures had different ideas they were producing symmetrical cable modems as broadband user were increasing. Their idea was that home user would need more upstream speed to send information toward word wide web. Cable modem suppliers were growing with same speed as high speed internet grew. Every supplier was bit different from other. Some big names of electronic devices like Cisco Systems. HP, IBM, Motorola jumped in industry of cable modems. There were also small manufactures in cable modem industry. When big companies entered in market, small manufactures where afraid because big manufactures can produce modem like cookies. They could offer price very much attractive for customers. Still small suppliers tried to move on as quickly it was possible for them. This all was happening in non-standardized environment. In 1995 only one mantra was on everyones tongue and it was standards for their technology. When it did not worked as it was in mind of big manufactures like HP and IBM they step back from scene. In those days standards for cable industry were only concern. Because it was related to electronic devices those were used in homes. Cable operators has only fitted cables and modems in their offices and at customers end only from short listed providers of cable and modems. It made possible coexistence of both suppliers and cable service provider. Main suppliers have full control over selecting pricing and features of cable modems. It totally up to them to decide when older version would be discontinued and newer version would be introduced to market. At end of year 1995 some of cable modem engineers started to does private meetings about a chip call MIcroUnity. Same like other chips it was also reprogrammable. They decided to use this chip in cable modems as well in set top boxes and later on if required it can be updated with software. It was an alternative for if new services are introduced then cable operator should change box. It have double cost first cost was of box and second one was to send one to install new box. At that time there were two main players in cable technologies. Both of them thought enough about this MicroUnity chip that was reprogrammable then they decided to invest in this chip. They formed a private company that would lead for use of chip in cable hardware. This company was called Cable Multimedia Cable Network System in short MCNS. Motivation behind MCNS was to attract more hardware suppliers in cable industry. So that pricing can be bring down and to introduce more features. Only reason to do so was to bring interoperability among cable device producers. only solution of Interoperability between devices from different operators was to develop standards. Later on MCNS became DOCSIS Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification. It is pronounced as dock sis. In year 1996 Developers put it on fast track and they decided to complete specification written till end of year 1996. At mid of 1997 specification were being completed. Lab test can be performed on specifications. Intension of these tests was give sample to vendor and to test specifications. It was September month of year 1997 when a detailed certification program was released. Responsibility was given to a board to review certification. It was also responsibility of board to approve products if they meet specifications. An agreement was made that Cable Modem Termination Systems would be check to qualify specifications and vendors would be tested to give me certificate. As certificate they will get DOCSIS certificate sticker. 2.1.2 Certification Two years and to clear three certification test were necessary for any vendor to get DOCSIS certificate. On 20 march 1999 cisco system got qualification for their CMTS. First certificate for modem was issued to Toshiba and Thomson companies. After some months modems from 3Com and Arris passed certification. In coming some months many products get DOCSIS certificate. Now a day in many country cable companies lead DSL reson behind is speedy efforts done to make DOCSIS standard. Meanwhile stories of success of cable modem and high speed internet were coming continuously. Peoples who adopted cable modem in its early days were satisfied from their decision. Cable modem industry was afraid if they would be able to full fill high demand. Because of fast progress of cable modem technicians were also in high demand. Two persons were need first one to handle cable modem and second one for handling personal computer. At end of year 2002 in North America there were around 16 million customers. Cost of cable modem was also reduced from 1990 since 2001. In year 2001 cost of a cable modem was around $120 while in year 1990 it was $500. There is no dispute either on success stories of cable or on its high demand. Investment banker signed agreements with leading cable companies to build backbone network and content infrastructure to support high speed cable modem technology. Development of DOCSIS is still continuing. Now a day Circuit of cable modem is available on personal computer cards. In Europe cable modem circuit is available in set top box. With the time successor of DOCSIS were released. Quality of service has in improved in successors of DOCSIS. They are able to support coming generation of high speed internet service. DOCSIS has also played very important role in development of internet protocols. Latest version of DOCSIS is DOCSIS 3.0 that is able to provide download speed of 1.5 Gbit/s and upload speed of 1150 Mbit/s. Trial version of DOCSIS 3.0 was announced o

Darwin and Gambles Debate Essay -- Nathaniel Hawthorne The Birthmark

Darwin and Gamble's Debate Nathaniel Hawthorne's "The Birthmark" gives a human face to Darwin and Gamble's academic debate concerning natural selection. In the story, Georgiana has a birthmark on her cheek that has been visible her entire life, but was just starting to agitate her husband, Aylmer. He used science to successfully rid his wife of the birthmark, but the procedure was fatal. The process that the couple went through appears to be a response to the theory of natural selection, with her death as the ultimate conclusion. This essay will examine the theory, the story, and the link between them. While Darwin and Gamble's theses contain multiple arguments and have multiple conclusions, the most important of them is the notion of natural selection. In Descent of Man, Darwin summarizes his argument by saying, "through the contest of rival males†¦[and] from the general struggle for life†¦the characters gained will have been transmitted to the offspring." (Darwin 6). It is contended that change among a given species is spontaneous (and normal), and sometimes the change is good (insofar as it adds a positive trait or traits to the organism), and sometimes it is bad. Those organisms with good changes will be fit to gather food and protect offspring, and those that are less fit will be less apt to do this. Extending the logic of this statement, the fit will survive, and the weak will die. The argument of whether or not one gender has become superior to another within the same species is irrelevant to Natural Selection. However, Darwin and Gamble bring this dispute to each of their respective works. Since they agree on the original concept of the survival of the fittest, their disagreements are reconcilable. Darwin crea... ...t is my contention that the application of the theory of natural selection to society and humanity is relatively unimportant, when compared with the application of the theory to evolution. Hawthorne's "The Birthmark" was a very timely interpretation of the events surrounding the emergence of the theory of natural selection. It shows the reader that the academic debate between Darwin and Gamble has a human face, and that all of us can learn from Aylmer's mistake, and Aminadab's nobility. Works Cited 1. Darwin, Charles. "Sexual Selection in Relation to Man." The Descent of Man. New York: Prometheus Books, 1998. 576-586. 2. Gamble, Eliza Burt. "The Supremacy of the Male." The Sexes in Science and History. New York: G.P. Putnam Sons, 1916. 74-92. 3. Hawthorne, Nathaniel. "The Birthmark." Anthology of American Literature. New York: McMillan, 1985. 1159-1169.

The Effect of Cell Phones

The effects that cell phones have on our lives. Cell phones have become a normal part of our everyday living. I have seen people as young as five years old own a cell phone. Nearly everyone has cell phones in this day and age. They have become a necessity for communication. Cell phones offer the ability to communicate with other people with like devices every minute of every day. If you are not able to speak directly with the other person, you can leave them a voicemail, send them a text message, send voice and picture messages, and even videos. Most cell phones now have internet access which allows a person to send emails to other individuals. Cell phones have had a positive impact on our lives. Cell phones are great to have in case of an emergency. For example, if someone’s car breaks down, or they run out of gas, the have a way of calling for help. Cell phones are an excellent source for communication. No matter where you are, or what time of the day, you can call anyone else who has a phone. Using a cell phone is a lot more convenient than having to have fifty cents in your pocket at all times to stop and use a pay phone. Most cell phones have calendars, note pads, and even access to the World Wide Web. People are using them for appointment reminders, keeping notes, reminders for birthdays and anything else they need to remember. You can use the internet access feature of a cell phone to access your email, look up phone numbers in search directories, and doing research. Some cell phones now come with Global Positioning Systems (GPS), to help people find their way to where they are going. A lot of cell phones have games on them and people like to play them while waiting in waiting rooms, or simply whenever they are bored. Cell phones have also had a negative impact in our lives as well. They have been found to be annoying, distracting, and dangerous. Many car accidents have been connected to cell phone usage. People are talking, dialing, and text messaging while driving down the road which is very dangerous and sometimes life threatening. People have become annoyed with cell phones ringing in the movie theatres, doctor’s offices, libraries, and other quiet places. Cell phones are also being used now by students to cheat in schools, which is causing a negative impact on their learning. Some hospital patients are at risk by cell phone users using their phones in areas that they are not suppose to. The prices of cell phones and minute plans are rising which is having a negative impact on our economy. People are no longer being able to afford to talk as much as they used to simply because the cost of living is rising. Cell phones are affecting our lives. The technology of cell phones is getting more and more advanced all the time. It is almost imperative that everyone owns a cell phone in this day and age. Regardless of the positive and negative impact cell phones are having on our lives, people will continue to buy and use them and the technology will keep advancing.

Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House Essay

The role, treatment, disadvantages, and sacrifices of women in their societies are vital themes in both Federico L’Orca’s The House Of Bernarda Alba and Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House. In Federico L’Orca’s The House Of Bernarda Alba, to start with, all characters that appear on stage are females, and men are merely talked about. In Ibsen’s A Doll’s House the protagonist is Nora, a woman who gets treated by her husband as though she were a little girl. At the time when Federico L’Orca and Henrik Ibsen wrote their plays, it was normal for women to get treated as anything but equal to men. Women were expected by men and by their society to do nothing more than stay at home, cook for their family, get children, and then take care of their children as well. Although Ibsen and L’Orca wrote these plays several decades apart, since Ibsen wrote his play at the turn of the century in Norway and L’Orca wrote his in 1930’s Spain, the expectations of women were pretty much the same. It was not normal for women to receive an education, let alone a good one, and women were not allowed to vote. In A Doll’s House there are three female characters: Nora, Mrs. Linde, and the maid working for Nora. All of these women have to sacrifice something and have disadvantages, simply because they are women. Every character in The House Of Bernarda Alba has to suffer because they are women. Spanish tradition in the 1930’s forces them all to isolate themselves from the outer world for eight years of their lives. In The House Of Bernarda Alba, Bernarda Alba and all of her daughters have to mourn the death of their father. This is Spanish tradition, and so they all have to live in their house for eight years, completely isolated from the rest of society. They may only wear black, even in the scorching heat of southern Spain. This already shows how harshly women were treated. Bernarda Alba and her daughters are forced to isolate themselves from the outside world completely, whether they want to or not, because of tradition. The eight women are forced to give up eight years of their lives in which they may do nothing but mourn. Also, the fact that a woman has to kill her own child when she gets pregnant, and is then hunted down by the whole town and killed herself, shows how women were viewed and treated. Also, a woman could often not decide who she wanted to marry, and when a women got married it was often just nothing more than a business deal, and the feelings of the woman were completely ignored.

The Colossal Heads of the Olmec

The Colossal Heads of the Olmec The Olmec civilization, which thrived along Mexicos Gulf Coast from about 1200 to 400 B.C., was the first major Mesoamerican culture. The Olmec were extremely talented artists, and their most lasting artistic contribution is without a doubt the enormous sculpted heads they created. These sculptures have been found at a handful of archaeological sites, including La Venta and San Lorenzo. Originally thought to depict gods or ballplayers, most archaeologists now say they believe they are likenesses of long-dead Olmec rulers. The Olmec Civilization The Olmec culture developed cities defined as population centers with political and cultural significance and influence as early as 1200 B.C. They were talented traders and artists, and their influence is quite clearly seen in later cultures like the Aztec and the Maya. Their sphere of influence was along Mexicos Gulf Coast particularly in the present-day states of Veracruz and Tabasco and major Olmec cities included San Lorenzo, La Venta, and Tres Zapotes. By 400 B.C. or so their civilization had gone into steep decline and had all but disappeared. The Olmec Colossal Heads The Olmecs colossal sculpted heads show the head and face of a helmeted man with distinctly indigenous features. Several of the heads are taller than an average adult human male. The largest colossal head was discovered at La Cobata. It stands about 10 feet tall and weighs an estimated 40 tons. The heads are generally flattened at the back and not carved all the way around they are meant to be viewed from the front and sides. Some traces of plaster and pigments on one of the San Lorenzo heads indicate that they may have once been painted. Seventeen Olmec colossal heads have been found: 10 at San Lorenzo, four at La Venta, two at Tres Zapotes and one at La Cobata. Creating the Colossal Heads The creation of these heads was a significant undertaking. The basalt boulders and blocks used to carve the heads were located as much as 50 miles away. Archaeologists suggest a laborious process of slowly moving the stones, using a   combination of raw manpower, sledges and, when possible, rafts on rivers. This process was so difficult that there are several examples of pieces being carved from earlier works; two of the San Lorenzo heads were carved out of an earlier throne. Once the stones reached a workshop, they were carved using only crude tools such as stone hammers. The Olmec did not have metal tools, which makes the sculptures all the more remarkable. Once the heads were ready, they were moved into position, although it is possible that they were occasionally moved around to create scenes along with other Olmec sculptures. Meaning The exact meaning of the colossal heads has been lost to time, but over the years there have been several theories. Their sheer size and majesty immediately suggest that they represent gods, but this theory has been discounted because in general, Mesoamerican gods are depicted as more gruesome than humans, and the faces are obviously human. The helmet/headdress worn by each of the heads suggests ballplayers, but most archaeologists today say they think they represented rulers. Part of the evidence for this is the fact that each of the faces has a distinct look and personality, suggesting individuals of great power and importance. If the heads had any religious significance to the Olmec, it has been lost to time, although many modern researchers say they think that the ruling class might have claimed a link to their gods. Dating It is almost impossible to pinpoint the exact dates when the colossal heads were made. The San Lorenzo heads were almost certainly all completed before 900 B.C. because the city went into steep decline at that time. Others are even more difficult to date; the one at La Cobata might be unfinished, and the ones at Tres Zapotes were removed from their original locations before their historical context could be documented. Importance The Olmec left behind many stone carvings that include reliefs, thrones, and statues. There is also a handful of surviving wooden busts and some cave paintings in nearby mountains. Nevertheless, the most striking examples of Olmec art are the colossal heads. The Olmec colossal heads are important historically and culturally to modern Mexicans. The heads have taught researchers much about the culture of the ancient Olmec. Their greatest value today, however, is probably artistic. The sculptures are truly amazing and inspirational and a popular attraction at the museums where they are housed. Most of them are in regional museums close to where they were found, while two are in Mexico City. Their beauty is such that several replicas have been made and can be seen around the world.

Giotto di Bondone Essays

Giotto di Bondone Essays Giotto di Bondone Paper Giotto di Bondone Paper Giotto di Bondone was born at Vespignano, near Florence, in 1276. He died at Florence on January 8, 1337. The son of a peasant, he became the pupil of Cimabue, then later, the head at Florence of a celebrated school of painters. His works include twenty-eight frescoes in the aisle of the upper church of S. Francis dAssisi, under those by Cimabue; the frescoes on the ceilings of the lower church of S. Francesco dAssisi, and an altarpiece (according to Vas ri the most completely executed of all his works); thirty-eight frescoes in the Capella dellArena at Padua; the frescoes of four chapels in Santa Croce, Florence, two of which have been destroyed; and a very small number of genuine panel-pictures. The extant public record of Giotto’s life is sparse but never-the-less telling. It reveals a personality whose range of interests and abilities is startling. It charts the course of a man who successfully moved and operated in the widely divergent worlds of business, theology and art. The public record also describes a man who, in a time when political overtones colored all aspects of society, not only survived but flourished. Was he therefore, as some have claimed, a voice of his time or was he, as others argue, a divinely inspired prophet of the future? A prophet is usually understood to be one who stands outside of society calling attention in a loud and often strident voice to that which is amiss in the culture, yet the record shows Giotto to be a man who was accepted by his peers, befriended by the elite, honored for his achievements and rewarded financially for his accomplishments. : While there is no denying that Giottos art was profoundly influenced by the Franciscan movement with its emphasis on recognizing the human in Christ and the divine in man, (Ferguson, 300) the records which give us glimpses into Giottos personal life, show that the Franciscan call to poverty was not one that he lived out in his life. Lest this definition of a prophet relegate Giotto by default to the category of a man of his time, from the critical perspective, it would be a mistake to anchor Giotto in either of these categories for what we know of him breaks the hard, brittle molds. Giotto di Bondone is an enigma, a contradiction dispelling the mythical stereotypes. Often called the father of Western painting, Giotto created a great revolution in painting. Although he remained faithful to some principles of his tradition, his source of style is most likely from the Roman school of painting which is characterized by a great interest in the sculptural rendering of form (Horst de la Croix and Tansey, 537). For instance, Giottos Paduan frescoes contained several characteristics new to that period. First, the beginning of spatial perspective provided a shallow space where figures could be placed to the front, middle or rear realistically. Secondly, figures were drawn with three divisional qualities of roundness and weight. Third, there was an overall surface pattern which emphasized the main features of the action, such as the direction of movement of figures against a partially realistic landscape. Finally, there was a continued awareness of the allegorical, symbolic or figural significance of the subjects of the painting (Holms, 210). Traditionally, medieval art was an art of copyists, of the transcription of traditional picture cycles into a more or less individual idiom (Gombrich, 150); however, in all styles the artist has to rely on a vocabulary of forms, and that it is the knowledge of this vocabulary rather than a knowledge of things that distinguishes the skilled from the unskilled artist. What is more, it remains important that there exists a natural pull toward the schematic which artists such as Giotto succeeded in overcoming (Gombrich, 293). In Italy, the new developments in art have been traced to panel-paintings and to the frescoes and other such monumental forms of art: If the most decisive moment in the history of Western painting had to be pinpointed to one day and one place, it could be the day in Padua more than six and a half centuries ago when Giotto rinsed out his brushes and took a last look around at the cycle of frescoes he had just completed for a chapel. In the lower section of the fresco on the chapels entrance wall, where the Last Judgement is pictured, Giotto makes clear that the building is a placative gift (Canaday, 6). In Giottos fresco cycles framed scenes are linked much as Dante joined the cantos in his epic poem, the Divina Comedia. Also, the narrative style demanded a convincing setting and Giottos perspective represented a method of depicting a scene from a certain vantage point. The narrative style was developed by the fourteenth century artist in order to depict a greater naturalness and intensified dramatic expression in his painting and to bring the heavenly subjects within the realm of understandable human feeling (Canaday, 5). The best early example of this style is Giottos fresco paintings in the Arena Chapel in Padua where the individual scenes on the chapel walls provide a majestic progression of the story from one section to the next with each incident conceived in its own emotional air just as a unit in a symphony† (Canaday, 6). The story is told with technical realism, tenderness and a passion that involves the viewers as vicarious participants. The human drama which has been elevated to a noble scale, purifies us through pity, if not through terror† (Canaday, 12). Because of this, Giotto is called the first Renaissance artist in that he humanized the narration of the Christian story and in doing so, opened a tradition of reference to nature. As a great artist also in the classical tradition, he ennobled man in his physical being as a vessel of the intellect and the spirit† (Canaday, 12).

Using Social Media to Dramatically Boost Your Efficiency [PODCAST]

Using Social Media to Dramatically Boost Your Efficiency [PODCAST] Reposting your best content on social media is a best practice: the conversions and conversations are like gold. You might be wondering about the best way to go about re-sharing content. Today, we’re going to be talking to Christin Kardos, the social media and community manager at Convince and Convert, the #1 content marketing blog in the world, according to Content Marketing Institute. Today, we’re going to talk about evergreen content, how to capitalize on incredible opportunities, and thought on whether social media automation is the right tool for you to increase productivity. You won’t want to miss today’s show! Information about Convince and Convert and what Christin does there. Evergreen content: What it is and how to leverage it to your advantage. How you can tweak and update your content to make it rank for certain keywords. Best practices when it comes to sharing previously published content. What content curation is and how Christin handles it at Convince and Convert. Thoughts on balancing your own content and others’ content, as well as why it’s important to focus on quality first and foremost. The benefits and potential downfalls of social media automation. Christen’s best advice for marketers wanting to get started with automation and reposting content. Links and Resources: Christin on Twitter Convince and Convert 105 Types of Content to Fill Your Editorial Calendar Feedly Pocket Send a Screenshot of Your Review Here If you liked today’s show, please subscribe on iTunes to The Actionable Content Marketing Podcast! The podcast is also available on SoundCloud,  Stitcher, and Google Play. Quotes by Christin: â€Å"Rule number one is if it’s not good, don’t share it.† â€Å"We focus on the â€Å"and therefore† aspect when we share content there are others who are actually the newsbreakers.† â€Å"Being useful is the best thing you can do.†

The development of Art Deco Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The development of Art Deco - Essay Example According to a website, Oaktown Art, â€Å"Art Deco was an international design movement popular in the 1920†²s and 30†²s, focused on themes of luxury, technology, modernization, and craftsmanship† . Art deco can be termed as an art movement that originated from Paris and within a span of very short time, it spread to both European and American regions. Art deco was basically an outcome of the earlier Art Nouveau movement . That movement was facing popularity decline by the end of the nineteenth century and some new modifications appeared necessary to keep art growing and flourishing. That was the reason why artists felt the need of adding some new themes to existing art. The modifications gained a level of acceptance and fame and within no time, art deco became one of the main trends related to the world of art. Art deco is similar to its previous form, Art Nouveau, in a sense that it also focuses on the significance of artisan craftsmanship. Art deco kept the same theme of Art Nouveau featuring curves, arcs, and natural motifs of flora and fauna . Although Art Deco has many features similar to Art Nouveau, but it is known as a modern form of art blended with the use of attractive colors schemes and sharps lines and edges. French artists are considered as the founders of Art Deco because they were the ones who started giving a new shape and look to exiting objects. The aim was to renovate the existing objects and make them, more attractive and appealing as compared to before. French artists are also known.

Causal Argument Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Causal Argument - Essay Example Some ladies turn to prostitution because of the company they join at their middle age. Others engage in this social evil because they want to overcome some sense of rejection they may have gone through. Prostitution has been used as a means of economic gain by some people while some others have engaged into it as a means to their own pleasure. Some countries have allowed the commercialization of sex, and they tax women who practice it. However, prostitution has faced a lot of criticism from many other people. Many people have indulged in some other evils to avert the criticism and stigmatization they have faced as prostitutes. Some of the prostitutes have resorted to drug abuse, which poses a serious health concern. The role of mentors in shaping the behavior of these women is questioned when they indulge in prostitution. In many cases women have resorted to prostitution as a result of constraints they have gotten in obtaining their based needs. When they are not supported at family level, these women tend to look for alternative sources of their needs’ satisfiers. Men assume the provider role to provide for the women. Mostly, this role is associated with entitlement to sexual right (Jewkes et al. 8). Women who get the provisions from these men feel that the best way to reciprocate the favors they receive is by giving sexual favors. Culture has shaped the mind of people so that they view the only way to respond to male provision as a woman is through sex. Culture has promoted the prostitution business for it has tagged a high value for exposure to sex. Many women that engaged in prostitution have said that they were victims of child sexual abuse. The urge that is in men for sex has driven women to be victims of this sexual business (Murphy 778). Prostitution has existed because of cultural factors that define gender relations. These relations have indicated unequal treatment to both men and women. According to International Labour Organization (12) women in Thailand preferred prostitution as a way to protect good women from rape. They saw that this acts as a means to avert men’s sexual power. According to study done in South Africa (Jewkes et al. 8), women engaged in prostitution because of the economic pressure they were going through. Women engage in sex for them to meet their material wants. Women conduct sex for material exchange to cater for their unmet needs. In South East Asians nations, many of the prostitutes are women who have either divorced or are single. The result is because in most of these nations women are the bread winners. The families in these areas are characterized by abject poverty. What resulted is that families break leaving younger ladies in their families. These families continue to depend on these young ladies who therefore resort to prostitution (International Labour Organization 12). In Russian area of Saratov, people who practice prostitution are not tolerated. Male residents of Saratov argue t hat women who engage themselves in commercial sex should not be shown any respect, understanding or even love. In South Africa, a group of men who responded to a research affirmed that the women who avail themselves for money are unworthy of respect. The results indicated that men who had sex with prostitutes have had at one time been engaged in a violent criminal activity. Prostitution continues to thrive as a business because men are paying for it. Although it is considered

Nestle Corporation Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Nestle Corporation - Assignment Example Most changes in industries are driven by the desires of customers (Doublethink, 2010). In the 1900s the company implemented second order change when the firm transformed from a domestic company into a global enterprise. The organization penetrated new marketplaces by purchasing subsidiaries in the foreign markets. Nestle aggressively targeted the U.S. marketplace during the World War II due to the increasing demand for dairy products. Another second order change that occurred at Nestle was the movement of corporate offices from Switzerland to the United States. The firm’s moves were based on the goal of increasing efficiency and productivity. In 1974 Nestle underwent another second order change when the firm decided to change its strategic approach by implementing a diversification strategy. A diversification strategy captures whatever strategic benefits that exist within a portfolio of businesses and turns them into a competitive advantage for the company (Chaneta). The firm became a major shareholder of the cosmetics company L’Oreal. A second acquisition that increased the level of diversification of the company was the purchase of Alcon Laboratories. Alcon Laboratories is dedicated to the manufacture of pharmaceutical and ophthalmic products. A first order change that the new CEO of the company, Brabech-Letmathe, implemented was the hiring of ten new executives to the executive board.

Individualized Education Program Research Proposal

Individualized Education Program - Research Proposal Example During my classroom observation, I did not let Mr. John know that I am observing him. During classes he is hard headed and very talkative. During their English lesson, the teacher had given them 15 minutes to read a short story. After reading the story, the teacher asked the students to answer the study questions found at the end of the story. His classmates answered the question on their own, but Mr. John did not begin answering the question until he was guided by the teacher. During the oral participation, he was called to two questions: one which the answer is very obvious, while the other needs reasoning. He was able to answer the easy question, but simply scratch his head on the second question. During their math lesson, he was asked to solve a worded problem. He was not able to locate the given figures that are required to solve the problem. When the teacher had provided him the given figure and the required operation to solve the problem, he then understand the process and had answered the problem correctly. Based on that observation, Mr. John found it hard to identify key ideas that are implied in what he is reading. During their Science lesson, their topic was all about food chain. He was asked by his teacher to draw the diagram of the food chain on the board. He then draw the diagram immediately and I was amazed by his artistic skills. When asked of what subjects he hate, he replied â€Å"I hate math problems, and I also hate reading stories because it is boring.†... The reason why his mother tried to abort him is because she is not ready to get pregnant at first. Both of his parents were fresh graduate at that moment and have no job at all, but the abortion failed. All attention was given to him when he was born until he grew up. He was raised as a spoiled child, provided with everything he wants. They had just discovered his personality problem when he first went to school, and he always receive lower grade until this time. The table below shows Mr. John's attitude at home based on the interview I conducted with his parents. At Home Fought with his younger brother during playtime. He don't want to be interrupted in what he is doing. Most of his time is consumed on watching his favorite cartoon shows. He easily get bored, he hates going to church and attending social parties with his parents. He often fights with his neighbor playmates because he doesn't want to be under shadowed. He gets bored scanning his notes and doing assignments. Most of the time he is guided by her mother in doing home works. He has poor appetite on healthy foods such as vegetables. 9. Work sample analysis: List at least six general samples that you would need to support your summary and recommendations 10. Classroom observations: List at least four general ideas of what you would 'see' that would support your summary and recommendations During my classroom observation, I did not let Mr. John know that I am observing him. During classes he is hard headed and very talkative. During their English lesson, the teacher had given them 15 minutes to read a short story. After reading the story, the teacher asked the students to answer the study questions found at the end of the story. His classmates answered the question on their

Opium War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Opium War - Essay Example The First Opium War was majorly caused by Chinas isolationist trade relations with the West particularly the British. Tension further arose between China and British because China would accept only silver from the British. Opium addiction was also the main and direct cause of the wars. During this time, opium addiction was an epidemic for the people of China. The British took this advantage of the high demand and began illegal exportation of opium which angered the Chinese. Furthermore, the trade was considered as disrespectful to the emperor and was in a violation of Chinese law. The tension then built more, and none of the countries were willing to compromise. All was as a result of China to spoil trade for British, and they engaged in the war to show their frustration. The consequences of the Treaty of Nanjing were more like the impact of the Opium War itself since the Treaty was as a result of the Opium War. In the treaty, the British as a country were given Hong Kong and free access to five ports. The ratification humiliated China, and their demand were never considered. According to the ratification â€Å"†¦. The Emperor of China agrees to abolish that practice in future at all Ports where British Merchants’’ (Article V). This was more like a humiliation as apart from the port accusation China was compelled to pay a huge sum of fine. In these five ports, the British Nationals had the right of extraterritoriality. This is to say, they were not subject to laws of China. In immediate resolution, these were not all that significant. Moreover, they represented the start of a series of humiliating episodes in where the Chinese were forced to open up more to the West. The treaty, for instance, has been considered significant in mod ern day Sino-foreign relations (Wang, 2005). There are various historical lessons that one can learn from opium war. The war is important as it humiliated the Chinese. Chinese

The Target Market of Trace Restaurant at W Hotel San Francisco Research Paper

The Target Market of Trace Restaurant at W Hotel San Francisco - Research Paper Example The fact that the menus depend on the local season is a sign of ensuring, visitors get to understand the local food pattern alongside the culture and environment. The restaurant has a wide variety of sea foods and meats. This is to carter for needs of the different tourists’ background. This is the reason the place is frequented by people on business travel, tourists, travelling sports people/ enthusiasts and fresh residents who want to get a feel of San Francisco as they settle. The pricing is steep and intended to lure the upper middle class and the high income earners. Apparently, these are the people who can afford to tour the world and stand the seemingly exuberant prices. An average drink costs from a minimum of $5.5 and that would be plain coffee! A simple meal goes for a minimum of $16 a plate. An example would be Fried Quail, few spoons of hazelnut and minor accessories such as olive leaves. Otherwise, an average meal would stand at $30 and higher per person. This is a deterrent factor for the residents because they can manage to make more of the same in the comfort of their homes. This is maintained based on the frequency of tourists, holiday makers and other travelers who seek high quality meals for a brief period of time. The restaurant is located in the center of SoMa district, which is in the downtown area of San Francisco (Jensen and Parr 2). It is three streets accessing the markets to the northwest and the south. The east ends with the San Francisco bay, a major global tourist attraction. The panoramic city line view combines well with the picturesque views of the Bay Bridge to ensure a breathtaking environment (Michelin North America, Inc 242). This has made the area a popular venue in for the film industry screening sessions, major fashion events, glamorous music shows, museums and art exhibitions. Therefore, the stylish and luxury design of the Trace

Opium War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Opium War - Essay Example The First Opium War was majorly caused by Chinas isolationist trade relations with the West particularly the British. Tension further arose between China and British because China would accept only silver from the British. Opium addiction was also the main and direct cause of the wars. During this time, opium addiction was an epidemic for the people of China. The British took this advantage of the high demand and began illegal exportation of opium which angered the Chinese. Furthermore, the trade was considered as disrespectful to the emperor and was in a violation of Chinese law. The tension then built more, and none of the countries were willing to compromise. All was as a result of China to spoil trade for British, and they engaged in the war to show their frustration. The consequences of the Treaty of Nanjing were more like the impact of the Opium War itself since the Treaty was as a result of the Opium War. In the treaty, the British as a country were given Hong Kong and free access to five ports. The ratification humiliated China, and their demand were never considered. According to the ratification â€Å"†¦. The Emperor of China agrees to abolish that practice in future at all Ports where British Merchants’’ (Article V). This was more like a humiliation as apart from the port accusation China was compelled to pay a huge sum of fine. In these five ports, the British Nationals had the right of extraterritoriality. This is to say, they were not subject to laws of China. In immediate resolution, these were not all that significant. Moreover, they represented the start of a series of humiliating episodes in where the Chinese were forced to open up more to the West. The treaty, for instance, has been considered significant in mod ern day Sino-foreign relations (Wang, 2005). There are various historical lessons that one can learn from opium war. The war is important as it humiliated the Chinese. Chinese

Edgar Allan Poe Research Paper Essay Example for Free

Edgar Allan Poe Research Paper Essay Best known for his poems and short fiction. Edgar Allan Poe is one of the most famous American poets. He deserves most credit for short suspenseful mysteries and he perfected the area of horror stories. He wrote many famous poems like The Raven and The Bells. Poe was a genius and very meticulous in his stories every clue had to fit and thats why he didnt make a lot of short stories but a small collection of great short stories. He was born in Boston on January 19, 1809. Both of his parents were touring actors; both died before Poe even reached three years old. A rich merchant named Mr. Allan in Richmond, Virginia took Poe in. His childhood was uneventful although he attended the University of Virginia in 1826 for only a year. Even thought he was a good student he ran up a large gambling dept that Allan refused to pay. This prevented his return to the university and broke-off his engagement to Sarah Elmira Royster, his Richmond sweetheart. Having no way to support himself he enlisted in the army. He had already written and printed (at his own expense) his first book, Tamerlane and Other Poems (1827). Allan secured Poes release from the army and his appointment to West Point but refused to give him money. After 6 months Poe apparently got kicked out of West Point for disobedience. His friends, however, gave money to him for the publication of Poems by Edgar A. Poe Second Edition (1831), actually a third editionafter Tamerlane and Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and Minor Poems (1829). This book contained the famous To Helen and Israfel, poems that show the restraint and the calculated musical effects of language that was characterizing his poetry. Poe next lived in Baltimore with his widowed aunt, Maria Clemm, and her daughter, Virginia, and turned to fiction as a way to support himself. In 1832 the Philadelphia Saturday Courier published five of his stories all comic or satiric. In 1833, MS. Found in a Bottle won a $50 prize from the Baltimore Saturday Visitor. Poe, his aunt, and Virginia moved to Richmond in 1835 and he became editor of the Southern Literary Messenger and married Virginia, who was not even 14 years old. Poe wrote fiction, his most horrifying tale, Berenice, in the Southern Literary Messenger, but most of his contributions were serious and critical reviews that earned him respect as a critic. He praised the young Dickens and devoted most of his attention to devastating reviews of popular contemporary authors. His contributions increased the magazines circulation, but they offended its owner, who didnt like Poes drinking. The January 1837 issue of the Southern Literary Messenger announced Poes that Poe will stop to be the editor but also included the first part of his long fiction tale, The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym, five of his reviews, and two of his poems. This was going to be the strange pattern for Poes career: success as an artist and editor but failure to satisfy his employers and to secure a quite, stable life. First in New York City (1837), then in Philadelphia (1838-44), and again in New York (1844-49), Poe tried to establish himself as a force in literary journalism, but with only slow success. He did succeed, however, in creating influential literary theories and in showing mastery of the forms he favored musical poems and short fictional narratives. Both forms, he argued, should aim at a certain unique or single effect. His theory of short fiction is best exemplified in Ligeia (1838), the tale Poe considered his finest, and The Fall Of The House Of Usher (1839), which was to become one of his most famous stories. The Murders in the Rue Morgue (1841) is sometimes considered the first detective story. The The Raven (1845) and The Bells (1849) are good example of musical poems. Virginias death in January 1847 was a heavy blow, but Poe continued to write and lecture. In the summer of 1849 he revisited Richmond, lectured, and was proposed to the fiancee he had lost in 1826, she accepted that. After his return north he was found unconscious on a Baltimore street. In a brief obituary the Baltimore Clipper reported that Poe had died of congestion of the brain.

Leadership Theories From Mahatma Gandhi To Winston Management Essay

Leadership Theories From Mahatma Gandhi To Winston Management Essay From Mahatma Gandhi to Winston Churchill to Martin Luther King, there are as many leadership styles as there are leaders. Fortunately, businesspeople and psychologists have developed useful and simple ways to describe the main styles of leadership, and these can help aspiring leaders understand which styles they should use. So, whether you manage a team at work, captain a sports team, or lead a major corporation, which approach is best? Consciously, or subconsciously, youll probably use some of the leadership styles in this article at some point. Understanding these styles and their impact can help you develop your own, personal leadership style and help you become a more effective leader. With this in mind, there are many different frameworks that have shaped our current understanding of leadership, and many of these have their place, just as long as theyre used appropriately. This article looks at some of the most common frameworks, and then looks at popular styles of leadership. Leadership Theories Researchers have developed a number of leadership theories over the years. These fall into four main groups: 1. Behavioral theories What does a good leader do? Behavioral theories focus on how leaders behave. Do they dictate what needs to be done and expect cooperation? Or do they involve the team in decisions to encourage acceptance and support? In the 1930s, Kurt Lewin developed a leadership framework based on a leaders decision-making behavior. Lewin argued that there are three types of leaders: Autocratic leaders make decisions without consulting their teams. This is considered appropriate when decisions genuinely need to be taken quickly, when theres no need for input, and when team agreement isnt necessary for a successful outcome. Democratic leaders allow the team to provide input before making a decision, although the degree of input can vary from leader to leader. This type of style is important when team agreement matters, but it can be quite difficult to manage when there are lots of different perspectives and ideas. Laissez-faire leaders dont interfere; they allow people within the team to make many of the decisions. This works well when the team is highly capable and motivated, and when it doesnt need close monitoring or supervision. However, this style can arise because the leader is lazy or distracted, and, here, this approach can fail. Similar to Lewins model, the Blake-Mouton Managerial Grid helps you decide how best to lead, depending on your concern for people versus your concern for production. The model describes five different leadership styles: impoverished, country club, team leader, produce or perish, or middle of the road. The descriptions of these will help you understand your own leadership habits and adapt them to meet your teams needs. Clearly, then, how leaders behave impacts on their effectiveness. Researchers have realized, though, that many of these leadership behaviors are appropriate at different times. So, the best leaders are those who can use many different behavioral styles and use the right style for each situation. 2. Contingency theories How does the situation influence good leadership? The realization that there isnt one correct type of leader led to theories that the best leadership style is contingent on, or depends on, the situation. These theories try to predict which leadership style is best in which circumstance. When a decision is needed fast, which style is preferred? When the leader needs the full support of the team, is there a better way to lead? Should a leader be more people oriented or task oriented? These are all examples of questions that contingency leadership theories try to address. A popular contingency-based framework is the Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory, which links leadership style with the maturity of individual members of the leaders team. 3. Trait theories What type of person makes a good leader? Trait theories argue that leaders share a number of common personality traits and characteristics, and that leadership emerges from these traits. Early trait theories promoted the idea that leadership is an innate, instinctive quality that you either have or dont have. Thankfully, weve moved on from this approach, and were learning more about what we can do as individuals to develop leadership qualities within ourselves and others. Whats more, traits are external behaviors that emerge from things going on within the leaders mind and its these internal beliefs and processes that are important for effective leadership. Trait theory does, however, help us identify some qualities that are helpful when leading others and, together, these emerge as a generalized leadership style. Examples include empathy, assertiveness, good decision-making, and likability. In our article Building TomorrowHYPERLINK http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_62.htmHYPERLINK http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_62.htms Leaders, we discuss a series of attributes that are important for all types of leaders to develop. However, none of these traits, nor any combination of them, will guarantee success as a leader. You need more than that. 4. Power and influence theories What is the source of the leaders power? Power and influence theories of leadership take an entirely different approach. Theyre based on the different ways in which leaders use power and influence to get things done, and the leadership styles that emerge as a result. Perhaps the most well known of these theories is French and RavenHYPERLINK http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_56.htmHYPERLINK http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_56.htms Five Forms of Power. This model distinguishes between using your position to exert power, and using your personal attributes to be powerful. French and Raven identified three types of positional power legitimate, reward, and coercive and two sources of personal power expert and referent (your personal appeal and charm). The model suggests that using personal power is the better alternative and, because Expert Power (the power that comes with being a real expert in the job) is the most legitimate of these, that you should actively work on building this. Similarly, leading by example is another highly effective way to establish and sustain a positive influence with your team. Another valid leadership style thats supported by power and influence theories is Transactional Leadership. This approach assumes that work is done only because it is rewarded, and for no other reason, and it therefore focuses on designing tasks and reward structures. While it may not be the most appealing leadership strategy in terms of building relationships and developing a long-term motivating work environment, it does work, and its used in most organizations on a daily basis to get things done. An Up-to-Date Understanding of Leadership Within all of these theories, frameworks, and approaches to leadership, theres an underlying message that leaders need to have a variety of factors working in their favor. Effective leadership is not simply based on a set of attributes, behaviors, or influences. You must have a wide range of abilities and approaches that you can draw upon. Having said this, however, theres one leadership style that is appropriate in very many corporate situations that of Transformational Leadership. A leader using this style: Has integrity. Sets clear goals. Clearly communicates a vision. Sets a good example. Expects the best from the team. Encourages. Supports. Recognizes good work and people. Provides stimulating work. Helps people see beyond their self-interests and focus more on team interests and needs. Inspires. In short, transformational leaders are exceptionally motivating, and theyre trusted. When your team trusts you, and is really fired up by the way you lead, you can achieve great things! The transformational leadership style is the dominant leadership style taught in our How to Lead: Discover the Leader Within You program, although we do recommend that other styles are brought in as the situation demands. Having said that Transformational Leadership suits very many circumstances in business, we need to remember that there may be situations where its not the best style. This is why its worth knowing about the other styles shown below so that you have a greater chance of finding the right combination for the situation you find yourself in. Popular Leadership Styles A Glossary The leadership theories and styles discussed so far fit within formal theoretical frameworks. However, many more terms are used to describe leadership styles, even if these dont fit within a particular system. Its worth understanding these! 1. Autocratic leadership Autocratic leadership is an extreme form of transactional leadership, where leaders have absolute power over their workers or team. Staff and team members have little opportunity to make suggestions, even if these would be in the teams or the organizations best interest. Most people tend to resent being treated like this. Therefore, autocratic leadership often leads to high levels of absenteeism and staff turnover. However, for some routine and unskilled jobs, the style can remain effective because the advantages of control may outweigh the disadvantages. 2. Bureaucratic leadership Bureaucratic leaders work by the book. They follow rules rigorously, and ensure that their staff follows procedures precisely. This is a very appropriate style for work involving serious safety risks (such as working with machinery, with toxic substances, or at dangerous heights) or where large sums of money are involved (such as handling cash). 3. Charismatic leadership A charismatic leadership style can seem similar to transformational leadership, because these leaders inspire lots of enthusiasm in their teams and are very energetic in driving others forward. However, charismatic leaders can tend to believe more in themselves than in their teams, and this creates a risk that a project, or even an entire organization, might collapse if the leader leaves. In the eyes of the followers, success is directly connected to the presence of the charismatic leader. As such, charismatic leadership carries great responsibility, and it needs a long-term commitment from the leader. 4. Democratic leadership or participative leadership Although democratic leaders make the final decisions, they invite other members of the team to contribute to the decision-making process. This not only increases job satisfaction by involving team members, but it also helps to develop peoples skills. Team members feel in control of their own destiny, so theyre motivated to work hard by more than just a financial reward. Because participation takes time, this approach can take longer, but often the end result is better. The approach can be most suitable when working as a team is essential, and when quality is more important than speed to market, or productivity. 5. Laissez-faire leadership This French phrase means leave it be, and its used to describe leaders who leave their team members to work on their own. It can be effective if the leader monitors whats being achieved and communicates this back to the team regularly. Most often, laissez-faire leadership is effective when individual team members are very experienced and skilled self-starters. Unfortunately, this type of leadership can also occur when managers dont apply sufficient control. 6. People-oriented leadership or relations-oriented leadership This is the opposite of task-oriented leadership. With people-oriented leadership, leaders are totally focused on organizing, supporting, and developing the people in their teams. Its a participative style, and it tends to encourage good teamwork and creative collaboration. In practice, most leaders use both task-oriented and people-oriented styles of leadership. 7. Servant leadership This term, created by Robert Greenleaf in the 1970s, describes a leader who is often not formally recognized as such. When someone, at any level within an organization, leads simply by meeting the needs of the team, he or she is described as a servant leader. In many ways, servant leadership is a form of democratic leadership, because the whole team tends to be involved in decision making. Supporters of the servant leadership model suggest that its an important way to move ahead in a world where values are increasingly important, and where servant leaders achieve power on the basis of their values and ideals. Others believe that in competitive leadership situations, people who practice servant leadership can find themselves left behind by leaders using other leadership styles. 8. Task-Oriented leadership Highly task-oriented leaders focus only on getting the job done, and they can be quite autocratic. They actively define the work and the roles required, put structures in place, plan, organize, and monitor. However, because task-oriented leaders dont tend to think much about the well-being of their teams, this approach can suffer many of the flaws of autocratic leadership, with difficulties in motivating and retaining staff. 9. Transactional leadership This style of leadership starts with the idea that team members agree to obey their leader totally when they accept a job. The transaction is usually the organization paying the team members in return for their effort and compliance. The leader has a right to punish team members if their work doesnt meet the pre-determined standard. Team members can do little to improve their job satisfaction under transactional leadership. The leader could give team members some control of their income/reward by using incentives that encourage even higher standards or greater productivity. Alternatively, a transactional leader could practice management by exception rather than rewarding better work, the leader could take corrective action if the required standards are not met. Transactional leadership is really a type of management, not a true leadership style, because the focus is on short-term tasks. It has serious limitations for knowledge-based or creative work, however it can be effective in other situations. 10. Transformational leadership As we discussed earlier, people with this leadership style are true leaders who inspire their teams constantly with a shared vision of the future. While this leaders enthusiasm is often passed onto the team, he or she can need to be supported by detail people. Thats why, in many organizations, both transactional and transformational leadership are needed. The transactional leaders (or managers) ensure that routine work is done reliably, while the transformational leaders look after initiatives that add new value. Key Points While the transformational leadership approach is often highly effective, theres no one right way to lead or manage that fits all situations. To choose the most effective approach for yourself, consider the following: The skill levels and experience of your team. The work involved (routine, or new and creative). The organizational environment (stable or radically changing, conservative or adventurous). You own preferred or natural style. Good leaders often switch instinctively between styles, according to the people they lead and the work that needs to be done. Establish trust thats key to this process and remember to balance the needs of the organization against the needs of your team.

In praise of the F Word, by Mary Sherry :: Failing Students Who Deserve to Fail

In the article â€Å"In praise of the â€Å"F† Word† Mary Sherry discusses the â€Å"F† word, which means failure. Basically Mary Sherry stated that the kids of today are getting cheated out of a good education. They are passing through the school system because some are good kids and they do not create any problems in the classroom. But, at the same time employers are also being cheated because they expect graduates to have the basic skills. She also stated that Diplomas are considered meaningless because most of these kids who were awarded one could not read or write properly and therefore, they are back in night school along with adults who are trying to get their G.E.D. Mary Sherry teaches an evening class and came to the conclusion that kids are being cheated when she asked them to write about an unpleasant experience in school. They all wrote something negative, they were crying out for help. It was also indicated that the teachers should have been more forceful in using the â€Å"F† word. Instead, these kids are now very angry and resentful for being passed along. It was also noted that your environment should not be an issue because most kids do not take school seriously and the teachers should have been more forceful with the â€Å"F† word. This also causes the employers to be cheated out of what they expect from their employees. Employers are also being cheated because the teachers fail to do their job right. For example, if a student went to school to be a nurse and is passed because he or she doesn’t disrupt class and was a good student this cause them to get a diploma. However, when they get into the real world they cannot deliver what is expected of them and can also be very costly for the employers. Therefore, the employer has no choice but to rehire and retrain. If the teacher were using the â€Å"F† word then the student would take the class more seriously and realize that their future is at stake. Finally, Mary Stated that Many people can rise above any situation if they are motivated, encouraged and knowing that they have something at stake to loose.

Essay --

â€Å"Ilmu pengetahuan tanpa nilai-nilai yang mulia belum tentu dapat melahirkan masyarakat yang baik dan berjaya. Nilai-nilai yang mulia tanpa ilmu pengetahuan juga tidak akan melahirkan masyarakat yang berjaya†. Begitulah ungkapan kata-kata bestari oleh mantan Perdana Menteri kita, Tun Dr. Mahathir bin Mohamad, Bapa Pemodenan Negara yang merupakan salah satu daripada pencetus kegemilangan dunia pendidikan negara. Selamat pagi dan Salam 1 Malaysia saya ucapkan kepada: Pengerusi Majlis, Yang Amat Berhormat Datuk Johan Ashaari bin Murti, Menteri Pendidikan merangkap Timbalan Perdana Menteri. Yang Berhormat Datuk Romario Ansam anak Rungah, Timbalan Menteri Pendidikan. Yang Amat Berhormat Pehin Sri Maher Zain, Ketua Menteri. Yang Berhormat Freddy Jabu anak Jugah, Timbalan Ketua Menteri. Yang Berhormat Datuk Halimah, Menteri Tugas-tugas Khas Dalam Negeri berkaitan Pendidikan. Yang Berhormat Datuk-datuk dan Datin-datin. Yang Berbahagia Datuk Ariffin Faiq, Ketua Pengarah Pendidikan. Yang Berbahagia Datuk Sabri bin Rahmat, Rektor IPGM. Yang Dihormati Encik Hafiz Azman, Pengarah Pendidikan Negeri. Yang Berusaha Puan Saftuyah binti Safri, Pengarah Institut Pendidikan Guru Tunku Abdul Rahman. Pengarah-pengarah IPGK dan Wakil-wakil Pengarah IPGK. Yang Berusaha Encik Amir bin Jamal, Timbalan Pengarah Institut Pendidikan Guru Tunku Abdul Rahman. Ketua-ketua Jabatan Persekutuan dan Negeri. Ketua-ketua Jabatan dan Ketua-ketua Unit Institut Pendidikan Guru Tunku Abdul Rahman. Pensyarah-pensyarah Kanan. Para Pensyarah. Staf-staf Sokongan. Para Graduan. Para Ibu Bapa. Tuan-tuan dan Puan-puan dekat di hati. Tegak rumah kerana tiangnya, tegak bumi kerana paksinya, tegaknya saya di sini adalah untuk menyampaikan sebuah pidato yang bertajuk â€Å"Kecemerlan... ...unyai muhasabah diri, mereka mampu mencipta nama dan berjaya di peringkat global. Tuan-tuan dan puan-puan yang dihormati sekalian, Sedarkah anda bahawa percubaan dan uji kaji ribuan kali telah dilakukan oleh Thomas Adison untuk mencipta lampu yang dapat kita nikmati faedahnya sehingga ke hari ini? Tahukah anda bahawa Colonel Sandera telah bersusah payah siang dan malam untuk mencipta resepi rahsia KFC nya sehingga semua kita yang pada hari ini menjamahnya sehingga menjilat jari? Sikap sebeginilah yang wajar diambilkan sebagai contoh dan panduan sekiranya kita ingin betul-betul cemerlang dalam akademik bahkan kehidupan kita seharian. Antara rahsia kejayaan orang-orang yang hebat ini ialah kepatuhan kepada disiplin. Lihatlah wahai dunia bahawa orang-orang yang berdisiplin ini yang akan menggoncang dunia! Bak kata pepatah, â€Å"siapa yang menuai, dia akan dapat hasilnya†.

Theories of Ethnocentrism: Social Dominance Theory and Social Identity Perspective

Theories of Ethnocentrism: Social Dominance Theory and Social Identity Perspective Compare and Contrast critically evaluate in light of relevant research and theoretical reasoning A major focus of psychology is in understanding why group conflict, inequality and ethnocentrism occur. Many researchers have developed theories and presented evidence to try and explain these issues and two predominant approaches have emerged. The first approach focuses on the relatively stable personality differences that people show in their general orientation towards ethnocentrism and inequality (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Social Dominance Theory (SDT) proposes that people exhibit different levels of social dominance orientation, a desire to dominate members of other groups and a desire for continued hierarchical relations between groups (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). The alternative approach focuses on social and situational factors as causes of ethnocentrism. The dominant theory here is Social Identity Perspective (SIP), which is comprised of Social Identity Theory (SIT) (Tajfel & Turner, 1986) and Self-Categorization Theory (SCT) (Oakes, Haslam & Turner, 1994). Social Identity Perspective proposes that ethnocentrism occurs when people are depersonalized: they see themselves as members of a salient group rather than unique individuals. This process leads them to adopt a social identity where their ideas, attitudes, values and behaviours tend to reflect norms of their group and their main goal is to see their group as positive and distinct (Turner, 1987). This essay will consider how these approaches define ethnocentrism and will provide an outline of how they explain ethnocentrism. It will then compare and contrast the theories, and consider the strengths and limitations of each with reference to the large body of research in this field. In light of the limitations of viewing ethnocentrism as due to a relatively stable, individual disposition to inequality, the essay concludes that SIP provides a more complete explanation. However, researchers need to consider whether ethnocentrism is due to an interaction of situationally dependent personality factors and social identity factors for a more comprehensive explanation of ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism Sumner (1911) originally defined ethnocentrism as â€Å"†¦the sediment of cohesion, internal comradeship and devotion to the in-group, which carries with it a sense of superiority to any out-group and readiness to defend the interests of the in-group against the out-group† (p. 11). Recent research has defined ethnocentrism as ethnic group self-centeredness and identified six specific aspects that are divided between inter and intragroup expressions (Bizumic, Duckitt, Popadic, Dru & Krauss, 2008). Intergroup expressions of ethnocentrism include a preference for and favoritism given to the ingroup, a tendency to see the ingroup as superior and to only associate with the ingroup (purity) and the belief that exploitation of outgroups is acceptable to promote ingroup interests (Bizumic et al, 2008). Intragroup aspects include that ingroups are cohesive: integrated and cooperative, and that there is strong devotion and commitment to the ingroup (Bizumic et al, 2008). The two theories define and measure ethnocentrism in different ways. SDT emphasizes ingroup favoritism and bias in high status groups, and the allocation of negative social value to outgroups (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Ethnocentrism is measured through levels of prejudice, racism, conservatism and other associated concepts, which, although distinct from ethnocentrism, are closely correlated (Bizumic et al, 2008). SIP measures ethnocentrism primarily through ingroup favoritism: the tendency to favor the ingroup in evaluations and allocation of resources (Oaks et al, 1994). Social Dominance Theory SDT was developed by Sidanius and Pratto (1999) and focuses on personality and structural factors as causes of ethnocentrism. The theory argues that individuals differ in their level of social dominance orientation (SDO), which is the desire to oppress outgroups, have the ingroup be seen as superior and dominant, or the extent that an individual endorses group inequalities (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Specifically, SDO is â€Å"a desire for and value given to ingroup dominance over outgroups and the desire for non-egalitarian, hierarchical relationships between groups within the social system† (Sidanius & Pratto, 1994 p. 9). Differences in SDO are argued to make some people more likely to show ethnocentrism and prejudice, and people who have SDO show more negative behaviours towards the outgroup. This is known as differential ingroup social allocations. Illustrating this point, Sidanius (1994) states that people’s ethnocentric orientations and attitudes are due to persona lity and consistent behavioral predispositions (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). SDT also proposes that legitimizing myths maintain ethnocentrism and inequality. These are beliefs, attitudes, values or ideologies that are circulated and justify inequality, as well as continuing the dominance of some groups over others (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). For example, the myth that men have better jobs and higher incomes because they are more assertive and have better leadership skills than women. The second part of SDT is based on the assumption that intergroup conflict and ethnocentrism is due to the way society is made up of group-based hierarchies, which have a hegemonic group at the top which controls money, resources and power, and a negative reference group at the bottom (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). These hierarchies are based on three stratification systems: an age system, gender system, and an arbitrary-set system, where people from high status groups have more power than people in lower status groups. Hierarchies are formed and maintained by institutional discrimination, individual discrimination and behavioural asymmetry (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Institutional discrimination is the rules and regulations of social institutions, such as schools, religions, corporations, businesses or governments, which result in lower status groups having less power, money or other resources. Institutions maintain unequal hierarchies through the use of systematic terror, which is threat or violence directed towards low status groups (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Individual discrimination is the small, daily discriminations which occur in every setting, and the way desired goods, such as health care, money or power, are allocated to members of dominant groups. These small acts add up and lead to the continued dominance of one group over another (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Behavioural asymmetry is the way people in low status groups behave differently compared to those in high status groups. Examples of this include that ethnocentrism is higher in high status groups compared to low status groups, and there is more ingroup favoritism in high status groups – what SDT calls the asymmetrical ingroup bias. Also, low status groups can show self-handicapping, which is where they perform below their abilities due to self-fulfilling stereotypes or expectations (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Social Identity Perspective SIP is a broad theory of ethnocentrism which includes social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1979) and self-categorization theory (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher and Wetherell, 1987). Social Identity Theory SIT proposes that in different situations, people either define themselves as individuals, or as group members: they move along the interpersonal – intergroup continuum (Tajfel & Turner, 1986). SIT argues that people have a collection of category memberships and each membership is represented in the persons mind as a social identity that describes how the person should think, feel and act as a member of that group (Turner, 1987). If a group is important people will internalize the group membership so that it becomes an important part of their self-concept, and they are then driven to achieve positive self-esteem and establish a social identity (they are motivated to establish positive distinctiveness) (Turner, 1987). This self-enhancement is achieved by comparing their group with salient outgroups along dimensions which lead to the most positive representation of their group. SIT proposes that a cognitive processing bias occurs during this process, which results in people minimizing the differences within their group, and exaggerating the differences between their group and a salient outgroup (Turner, 1987). This produces intragroup homogeneity, where behaviour becomes more group focused, attitudes in the group are consensual and people define themselves and outgroup members as â€Å"undifferentiated† members of their social category (Turner and Reynolds, 2001). SIT explains these cognitive processes of categorization and self-enhancement as due to subjective belief structures, which are people’s beliefs about the nature of relations between groups (Turner, 1987). These include the stability and legitimacy of group relations, and the possibility of social mobility psychologically passing from one group to another, or social change, changing how they feel about their group membership (Turner, 1987). Self-Categorization Theory SCT follows on from and elaborates on SIT. SCT focuses on the shift from personal to social identity which occurs when people change from defining themselves as individuals compared to other individuals (when their personal identity is salient), and start to see themselves as group members who are different from members of other groups (when their social identity is salient) (Turner et al, 1987). This social identity is thought to emerge when group categorizations are made prominent. The emergence of this social identity leads to a process called depersonalization, which is where people see increased similarity between themselves and ingroup members and differences from outgroup members, interchangeability with other ingroup members, and see themselves as representative of the group (Turner et al, 1987). The theory argues that whether depersonalization occurs depends on the accessibility and fit of social categories. Accessibility is how accessible the category is, in terms of past experiences, expectations, goals, motives and if the categorization is important for a person’s self-concept (Turner et al, 1987). Fit refers to the way people activate a category which best explains or fits the individual information and stored category information (Turner et al, 1987). Fit is determined based on whether the information fits in a normal or stereotypical direction (normative fit), and whether there is a high meta-contrast ratio: which is when the differences within a group are less than the differences between that group and others (comparative fit) (Turner et al, 1987). Overall, all group processes, including ethnocentrism, are argued to be the outcome of psychological group formation and depersonalization of self. Similarities between Social Identity Perspective and Social Dominance Theory Both theories agree that that group identification is needed for ethnocentrism and influences levels of ethnocentrism (Sidanius, Pratto, van Larr & Levin, 2004). SDT argues that although people with particular personalities are more likely to engage in ethnocentrism, social identification is also needed (Sidanius et al, 1994). The theories also agree that ingroup bias and favouritism can be modified under specific conditions (Sidanius, Pratto, Mitchell, 1994). Similarly, both theories recognize the importance of the salience of ingroups and outgroups (Sidanius et al, 2004). Significantly, minimal group experiments show that if intergroup distinctions are made salient, peoples SDO levels are more likely to influence whether they discriminate against outgroups, and many SIP experiments have show the importance of salience in changing group relations Sidanius et al, 2004). Both theories emphasize the â€Å"dynamic† ways people construct their social identities (Sidanius et al, 2004), based on a salient ingroup, or group distinctions based on race, nationality, class, ethnicity, or arbitrarily-set categories. Sidanius et al. , (2000) also argue that SIP finding of ingroup favoritism in minimal groups is similar to SDT assertion that people have a predisposition to form ingroup – outgroup distinct ions and to discriminate against outgroups based on these categorizations. Also, although the theories differ on the importance assigned to social and contextual factors, both agree that they can influence ethnocentrism. SIP clearly emphasizes social factors such as self-categorizations and contextual factors including the salience of groups, and the stability and legitimizing of group relations (Turner, 1987). SDT also considers social identification, contextual factors such as status differences, connections with social institutions and social roles, cultural factors and structural relations (Sidanius, 2000). Although SDT argues that SDO is a relatively stale personality variable, they do agree that levels of SDO can correspond with shifts in the intergroup context (Sidanius et al, 2004). SIP also argues that ethnocentrism can vary based on the context and structural position of groups (Turner et al, 1994). Levin (1996) found that when differences between groups of Jewish Israelis were made salient, high-status Jewish Israelis were more positively orientated toward inequality than lower status Jewish Israelis. However, when thinking about Israeli-Palestine relations, the groups did not differ in attitudes towards inequality. Further, Schmitt, Branscomb and Kappen (2003, study 3) found that the participants who believed inequality favored their university (ingroup) were much more positive towards the inequality than the other participants, showing that the social-structural position of groups influences attitudes. Differences between Social Identity Perspective and Social Dominance Theory Although there are some general similarities between these theories, they contrast on many specific points. Focus on Personality or Social Factors as Causing Ethnocentrism The major difference between these two theories is their focus on either personality or social factors as causing ethnocentrism. SDT argues that the personality variable SDO is the main factor predicting ethnocentric behaviour (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). In contrast, SIP argues that identification with the ingroup and self-categorization as a group member through a process of depersonalization leads to ethnocentrism (Reynolds, Turner, Haslam, and Ryan, 2001). There is evidence for each argument. Evidence that ethnocentrism is caused by levels of SDO. There is evidence that SDO scores are correlated with attitudes and beliefs related to ethnocentrism. SDO was positively correlated with racism, sexism, conservatism, ethnic prejudice, nationalism, patriotism and cultural elitism in a diverse sample of 19,000 participants from 13 samples (Pratto, Sidanius, Stallworth, and Malle, 1994). People with higher levels of SDO also reported that they intended to work in more hierarchy-enhancing professions as opposed to hierarchy-attenuating professions (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). There is also evidence that support for discriminatory policies, strict laws, military programs, war; the death penalty and belief in legal retribution are positively correlated with SDO (Sidaius, Lui, Pratto and Shaw, 1994). High SDO scores and dominance-oriented prejudice have also been found to be related to personality characteristics such as being disagreeable, vindictive, hostile or seeing social inequality as â€Å"they way it should be† (Lippa & Arad, 1999). However, there is no evidence that SDO causes ethnocentrism, only that some aspects of ethnocentrism are closely related to a dominance orientated personality measure. There is also evidence that SDO predicts outgroup discrimination and negativity in minimal group studies. Sidanius and Pratto (2004) found that people who scored higher on SDO had a greater desire for social distance from the outgroup, were less willing to cooperate, showed a tendency to accept group boundaries and a desire to dominate other groups. They concluded that although ingroup favoritism is important, SDO is needed to fully explain ethnocentrism. Evidence against the assertion that SDO causes ethnocentrism. Recent evidence suggests a different explanation for these results. Schmitt et al (2003) argue that the results of experiments showing SDO is related to ethnocentrism are actually due to the way specific forms of inequality are salient for participants as they fill in SDO measures. Schmitt et al (2003) tested this in study 1, and found that SDO was only correlated with racism if race was a salient social categorization at the time. Study 2 provided further support, showing that sexism scores only predicted SDO when gender was salient, and racism scores only predicted SDO when race was salient. Therefore, when people are completing a measure of SDO, they are actually expressing their attitudes towards inequality specific to salient social groups rather than pre-existing, stable individual dispositions towards inequality (Schmitt et al, 2003). Evidence that ethnocentrism is caused by self-categorization. Tajfe, Billing, Bundy and Flament (1971) conducted the first minimal group studies which led to SIP. In these experiments participants were divided into one of two groups of the basis of some meaningless dimension, and then allocated resources to members of the two groups. Despite the minimal conditions, participants still acted in an ethnocentric way, showing ingroup favouritism. Additionally, when given the choice of maximising joint benefits (for the ingroup and outgroup) or maximising comparative benefits, participants tended to chose the option that gave the ingroup comparatively more than the outgroup. This discrimination in minimal groups has been found over a range of cultures and dimensions, and shows that categorization of people into groups can produce discrimination (Turner, 1986). General evidence for SIP over personality theories of ethnocentrism comes from Haslam and Wilson (2000), who found that personal beliefs were more predictive of prejudice when they reflected stereotypic beliefs shared within an in-group. Perreault and Bourhis (1999) found that ingroup identification was the only factor which predicted discrimination in minimal groups, and that a range of personality variables had no impact Role of SDO. Another key difference between the theories is that while SDT describes SDO as a relatively stable personality variable, SIP argues that it varies in different situations, in different groups, and based on identification. Reynolds, Turner, Ryan, Mavor and McKone (2006) looked at the degree that personality variables (SDO and authoritarianism) can be modified using identification with either a pro or anti-feminist source. They found significant changes in levels of feminism and SDO in the different conditions, which shows that SDO can be influenced. SDO scores of individuals did not correlate well between the two phases of the experiment if participants had seen the pro-feminist message, and measures also showed that implicit prejudice and stereotyping varied in the same way as SDO. SIP provides a clear explanation for these and other results which find SDO to be stable, by arguing that attitudes can be stable in contexts where similar self-categorizations are made salient, but can change when shifts in categorization occur (Reynolds et al, 2006). Verkuyten and Hagendoorn (1998) made either a personal or national identity salient and looked at ingroup stereotypes of the Dutch’s treatment of minorities. They found that personality variables were correlated with prejudice in the personal identity condition, and ingroup stereotypes were correlated in the national identity condition. Also, when ingroup norms were of tolerance and equality, participants showed far lower levels of prejudice. This supports the SIP discontinuity hypothesis, showing that people’s attitudes change depending on what identity is salient, and ethnocentrism is determined by people’s salient self-categorizations. Reynolds, Turner, Haslam and Ryan (2001) conducted similar studies, testing prejudice when participants personal, gender, age, or national identity was salient. They found correlations between personality and prejudice in the age and gender conditions, but not in the personal or national conditions. They also found that the relationship was strongest when the gender identity was salient and weakest when a national identity was salient. So, the power of personality to predict ethnocentrism changed in the different conditions. Reynolds et al (2001) argue that SDO cannot be the psychological mechanism underlying ethnocentrism and inequality if it varies with group identity. In contrast to these results, Sidanius et al (1994) measured ethnocentrism with indexes of differential ingroup social allocation (DISA) in minimal groups, and found a direct relationship between SDO and three of the DISA indexes. Even after the effects of gender, self-esteem and ingroup identification were controlled for, subjects with higher levels of SDO displayed a greater desire for social distance from, and were less willing to cooperate with the outgroup. This demonstrates that, independent of the effects of group identification, people who have higher levels of SDO are more likely to show ethnocentric behaviour and attitudes. Explanations for varying levels of SDO across situations and in groups. A related difference between the two theories is their different explanations for the variability found in SDO scores. SDT has suggested that changes in SDO may be due to the fact that people with high SDO are more likely to identify with their group and be affected by group factors (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). In contrast, SIP has argued that SDO is a group attitude which varies in different situations (Reynolds & Turner, 2006). SIP argues that personality differences may be correlated with ethnocentrism when personal identity is salient, but group attitudes and beliefs will predict ethnocentrism when a social identity becomes salient (Reynolds and Turner, 2006). A number of studies have tested whether shifts in self categorization from personal to social identities affect the relationship between ethnocentrism and personality variables, and a few key experiments are outlined below. Sidanius, Pratto and Mitchell (1994) looked at minimal group members who evaluated each other on positive and negative domains and found that, in line with both theories, ingroup identification significantly predicted discrimination. However, people who identified highly with their group and had high levels of SDO showed more ingroup favouritism, suggesting that SDO is a key predictor of ethnocentrism. Buzimic et al (2007) tested whether personality factors affect discrimination directly or indirectly through influencing people who have higher levels of these personality variables to identify more strongly with their ingroup. They found that ingroup identification was a significant predictor of discrimination, and that it got stronger when the ingroup-outgroup categorization was more salient. Individual differences in levels of SDO did not predict discriminatory behaviour, and there was little evidence that some people have a preference for hierarchal relations between groups. In one condition, where discrimination would lead to an unequal hierarchy, participants actually showed fairness and cooperation. Although people with high SDO did not move as far towards equality as the other participants here, if there was a basic drive for inequality and dominance participants should have discriminated strongly in that condition. This study provides clear evidence that SDO does not influence ethnocentric behaviours. Explanations for gender differences in ethnocentrism Another important difference between SIP and SDT is their explanations for the gender differences in ethnocentrism. SDT takes an evolutionary stance, arguing that these differences are due to biological differences in the reproductive strategies of men and women (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). That is, men need to have lots of economic resources to attract young, attractive women, while women are focused on attracting men with resources to support their offspring (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). SDT sees this difference as stable, and not affected by structural or contextual factors, and predicts that men will almost always be more favorable towards inequality. A limitation of this explanation is that it does not explain the major changes in women’s roles that have occurred in developed countries over time (Reynolds et al, 2000). SIP argues that the lower levels of ethnocentrism in women are not due to gender differences in SDO, they are due to the same processes which result in all lower-status groups having lower levels of SDO – the different implications that the inequality has for each group (Schmitt et al, 2003). That is, women have lower levels of ethnocentrism because gender inequality results in disadvantage for them, and men have higher levels because this inequality is beneficial for them (Schmitt et al, 2003). As such, these differences should vary depending on the specific inequality which exists between the groups. Schmitt et al (2003) investigated these competing explanations. They found that men and women did not differ in levels of SDO after they considered gender inequality in both directions, and did not differ in their overall comfort with specific forms of inequality – which contradicts SDT. Gender differences in SDO were mediated by sexism, suggesting that the difference is due to women and men’s different positions in the social structure. They also found that men felt more positively about inequality that favored men, while women felt more positively about inequality which favored women. There was no correlation between gender and other types of inequality, showing that gender differences are specific to the inequality that exists between the men and women. Causes of high SDO and ethnocentrism. In contrast to SIP, SDT argues that SDO and ethnocentrism develop from three major influences: socialization factors, situational contingencies and temperament (Sidanius & Pratto, 1994). The main socialization factor is group status. SDT argues that because group superiority seems compatible with hierarchy-legitimizing myths, it seems appropriate for people in high-status groups (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). There is substantial evidence that group status is related to SDO. Pratto and Choudhury (Pratto, 1999) found that people in higher status groups had higher levels of SDO, whether group status was based on gender, ethnicity or sexual orientation. SDO has also been found to increase with the status of the major racial groups in America (Sidanius et al, 1999). Other factors which lead to SDO and ethnocentrism include gender, and temperament or personality factors. Evidence for this shows SDO declines with empathy and increases with aggression. Education is also thought to be involved, with higher levels of education correlating with lower SDO and prejudice generally. However, this seems to contradict other SDT predictions, as you would expect that people with higher levels of education would be in higher status groups. Finally, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, religiosity and employment status are also thought to be involved. Sidanius and Pratto (1994) found that these demographic variables accounted for 21% of the variance in SDO scores. However, across samples and nations, only gender and group status were reliably related to SDO. Explanations for differences in ethnocentrism in different status groups Although both SDT and SIP agree that group status effects ethnocentrism, they differ in their explanations of why this is so. SDT argues that group status directly effects people’s SDO, and group differences in acceptance of legitimizing myths account for group differences in SDO (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). In contrast, SIP argues that SDO scores reflect attitudes towards the specific types of inequality that are salient (Schmitt et al, 2003). Schmitt et al (2003, study 4) investigated these competing explanations. They found that men and Whites were more pro-inequality than women and ethnic minorities. However, they found that gender differences in SDO were totally mediated by sexism, but not by racism, and racial differences in SDO were mediated by racism, but not by sexism. So, group differences in SDO are not indicative of group differences in a general orientation towards inequality, but are reflective of group differences in attitudes relevant to the specific inequality existing between groups. Explanations for outgroup favoritism Another important difference between the two theories is their explanations for outgroup favoritism, and their predictions of when outgroup favoritism will occur. Many studies illustrate that low-status group’s show outgroup favoritism (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). SDT developed the asymmetrical ingroup bias hypothesis, which states that high-status groups will show more ingroup favoritism because it is easier and more valuable for them, and that low-status groups should show outgroup favoritism to support the social hierarchy (especially people with high SDO) (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). In contrast, SIP argues that the legitimacy and stability of intergroup relations determines when people will show outgroup favoritism (Tajfel and Turner, 1979). If group boundaries are permeable and inequalities secure (stable or legitimate), people will identify with, favor and seek to move into the high status group (Turner, 1986). If group boundaries are impermeable and secure, low status group members will accept their status and try to seek positive distinctiveness along other dimensions (Turner, 1986). If group boundaries are impermeable and insecure (that is, unstable or illegitimate), the low status group will seek to change the inequality and will show ingroup bias (Turner, 1986). There is a lot of evidence supporting these three predictions, including a meta-analysis of ingroup bias conducted by Mullen, Brown and Smith (1992) which found that while high status groups evaluated their group on dimensions relevant to the inequality, low-status groups tended to show greater ingroup favoritism on less relevant attitudes – finding alternative means of achieving positive distinctiveness. Sidanius and Pratto (1999) tested group asymmetry in ingroup favoritism and found that Blacks had higher levels of ingroup bias than Whites, consistent with SIP. Also, the SDT prediction that low-status group members will act against their own interests and show outgroup favoritism to support the unequal social system has been disconfirmed by much SIP research which shows that low-status groups will only favor high-status groups if they either identify with the group or see the inequality as stable and legitimate (Oakes, Haslam & Turner, 1994). Finally, the SDT prediction that all high-status group members will show ethnocentrism and support for inequality is problematic: ethnocentrism has been found in many different groups, of both high and low status (Reynolds & Turner, 2000). Comfort with inequality in the direction it exists in society. SDT argues that people are more comfortable with inequality as it exists in society than in the opposite direction because it is justified by hierarchy-enhancing legitimizing myths; and that people high in SDO are even more likely to accept inequality it its general direction (Sidanius and Pratto, 1994). In contrast, SIP argues that people’s social identities affect comfort with inequality – people are more likely to be comfortable with inequality which favors their ingroup rather than the outgroup (Schmitt, Branscomb & Kappen, 2003). Schmitt et al (2003, study 3) tested these contrasting predictions by asking participants to report on how comfortable they would be with four different types of inequality in both possible directions. They found that SDO did not influence participants comfort with inequality, and could not account for comfort with inequality as it exists compared to the opposite direction. These findings support SIP, showing that attitudes toward inequality depend on the type and direction of inequality being considered. The importance of ingroup favoritism or outgroup degradation in ethnocentrism. The theories also differ in the importance they assign to different aspects of ethnocentrism; SIP focuses on ingroup favoritism in producing cohesion, devotion and discrimination (Turner, 1986). In contrast, SDT focuses on personality variables which lead to outgroup negativity (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). SDT argues that SIP is limited in the scope of behaviours it can explain: ingroup favoritism and a desire for positive distinctiveness cannot explain the way some people or groups strive to dominate and oppress outgroups, and cannot explain the occurrence of oppression, ethnic wars, slavery and other such events (Sidanius, Pratto & Mitchell, 1994). A number of studies support SDT in their criticism of SIP. Brewer (1979) found that most intergroup discrimination in minimal groups was bias in favor of the ingroup rather than denigration of the outgroup. Hewstone, Fincham and Jaspars (1981) investigated when people will take money away from ingroup and outgroup members in minimal groups, and found less ingroup favoritism and that the predominant strategy used was fairness. Mummendey et al (1992) investigated allocation of negative outcomes to the ingroup and outgroup and did not find any evidence of ingroup favoritism and that fairness was the main strategy used. However, when group size and status were manipulated in this experiment more negative allocations were made to the outgroup when the ingroup was a minority or of low status, and ingroup favoritism was the most used strategy in low status groups (Mummendey et al, 1992). These results support SIP, showing that ingroup favoritism occurs in negative domains when the ingroup is particularly motivated to achieve a positive social identity. Reynolds, Turner and Haslam (2000) also found that ingroup favoritism is not restricted to the positive domain; that participants allocated negative resources to outgroups when traits fit the ingroup-outgroup categorizations. Conclusion After considering similarities and differences in two major theories of ethnocentrism, and highlighting strengths and weakness of each, a clear conclusion emerges. SDT proposes an explanation of ethnocentrism at the individual, group and societal level, and is very good at highlighting individual differences in the desire to dominance others (Huddy, 2004). Sidanius and Pratto (1999) also provide clear evidence for how minority members are discriminated against and the way individual, institutional and other structural factors maintain inequality in numerous studies. Although it cannot explain ethnocentrism, SDT predicts and demonstrates that people high in SDO show more prejudice and endorse measures which maintain inequality. 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